Sexual+Stigma

Paul Evans ** Sexual Stigma ** ** Definition of Sexual Stigma ** Herek, Chopp and Strohl (2007), define sexual stigma as the shared belief by society in which homosexuality is disintegrated, discredited, and constructed as invalid relative to heterosexuality. In essence, it is a negative label given to those who are of gay, lesbian, bisexual orientation by those in the sexual majority, or the heterosexual orientation. Sexual stigma is felt most often for heterosexuals when they encounter someone that is a gay, lesbian, or bisexual; however, it is felt on a daily basis for those of the sexual minority. This pressure that the sexual minority feels is embedded deep within our culture and leads to discrimination and prejudice towards them and the things for which they stand.

** Three Types of Sexual Stigma ** Sexual stigma has a significant effect on all human beings, not just those who are being stigmatized. Sexual stigma is expressed in a multitude of ways throughout our culture, and can be seen in the way we act, think, and communicate. The expression of sexual stigma ranges from the openly expressive views of anti-gay and lesbian protests to the covert opinions of an individual’s self concept, or why they are the way they are. Enacted Sexual stigma is identified by an individual’s overt expression of their negativity towards individuals of the homosexual or bisexual gender (Herek et. al, 2009). Enacted sexual stigma is seen in several forms, most of which involved open discrimination or prejudice. Hate crimes directed towards homosexuals and stereotypical anti-gay terminology would fall under this category. Felt stigma occurs when a homosexual is confronted with the chronic occurrence of sexual stigma (Herek, Chopp, & Strohl, 2007). This second form of sexual stigma occurs when an individual realizes society’s stance on non-heterosexuals and the instances in which the stigma might be enacted. Examples include same sex physical contact, gender non-conformity, and hiding ones homosexuality (Herek et. al, 2009). Individuals who feel felt stigma actively avoid those situations in which they think the stigma will be presented. Internalized stigma is when an individual personally accepts a stigma as part of their self concept (Herek at. al 2009). This differs whether or not the person is a homosexual themselves or if they are heterosexual. For heterosexual individuals, internalized stigma takes the form of sexual prejudice where the person displays negative attitudes towards sexual minorities. For homosexual individuals, internalized stigma causes the individual to have the same sexually prejudiced attitudes not only towards other sexual minorities, but also to themselves (Herek et. al, 2009). Kaljee and colleagues (2008), call internalized stigma, “Self-stigmatization,” and determine that acceptance of these negative attitudes can lead to feelings of shame and inadequacy for the individual.

A comedic version of an Uncle Sam military recruitment poster for Don't Ask, Don't Tell. ** Sexual Stigma in Politics ** Sexual stigma is ever present in the political scene of the United States. Several laws have been passed that place limitations on certain sexual practices including sodomy. Laws extend all the way back to 1500’s when under the English Buggery Statute of 1533; men found guilty of sodomy were sentenced to death (D’Emilo, 1998). Even in the United States sodomy was considered a felony in all but two states in the late 1950’s (D’Emilo, 1998) The “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” law was passed in the United States. This law states that all openly gay, lesbian, and bisexual members of the United States military must be discharged immediately (Servicemembers Legal Defense Network, 2011). Since 1993, which is the year it went into effect, nearly 14,000 men and women have been discharged from the military under this law (Servicemembers Legal Defense Network, 2011). President Barack Obama signed a bill on December 22, 2010 to repeal the “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” law; however the repeal has yet to be certified, and the law remains intact to this day (Servicemembers Legal Defense Network, 2011). There is an overwhelming amount of sexual stigma placed on same sex marriage in the United States. Currently only six states and the District of Columbia will issue marriage licenses to same sex couples (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2011). These states include //Massachusetts, Connecticut, California, Iowa, Vermont, and New Hampshire. Nevertheless, there are still thirty-seven states that have Defense of Marriage Acts, which explicitly state that marriage is only allowed between a man and a woman (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2011). //

//**Religion and Sexual Stigma **// // Research has shown that sexual stigma related to anti gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals stems greatly from religious beliefs (Nelson, 2009). Nelson (2009) argues that the way a person practices their religion can have an effect on their propensity towards stigmatization. Those who practiced their faith for status or personal security rather than as an end to itself were more likely to be prejudiced and thus fall into the sexual stigmatization that their religion holds (Nelson, 2009). Most religions have strict guidelines against homosexuality. Christianity, Judaism, and Muslim are three religions that consider relations between same sex couples a sin; however most of these religions, especially Judaism and Christianity, make it explicitly clear that it is the homosexual act and not the person or their orientation that is condemned in the religion (Religion Facts, 2011). //

// A button opposing gay marriage. //

//**Sexual Stigma: Males v. Females **// //There is a discrepancy between the attitudes of society on gay men and lesbian women. According to Herek (2002), women tend to be more accepting of homosexuality as a whole. In addition, women were much less likely to hold stereotypical beliefs about homosexuals, and they were more willing to extend gay men rights to adoption and equal benefits in the workplace (Herek, 2002). Heterosexual men were the least likely to support same sex marriage and also the most likely to think that gay men were pedophiles and suffered from a mental illness (Herek, 2002). In another study by Herek and Capitanio (1999), they found that heterosexual men were more likely to answer questions about homosexual men when they were first asked questions about lesbian women (Herek and Capitanio, 1999). These findings may suggest that the gender differences depend on how the man is being asked about individuals of the sexual minority. As a whole, Heterosexuals tend to display more negative attitudes towards members of their same sex and attitudes towards homosexual men are overwhelmingly negative compared to lesbians for both men and women (Herek, 2002). //

References: D'Emilo, John. (1998). //Sexual politics, sexual communities: the making of a homosexual minority in the United States, 1940-1970//. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Herek, G.M. (2002). Gender gaps in public opinion about lesbians and gay men. //Public Opinion Quarterly//, //66//(1), Retrieved from []

Herek, G.M., & Capitanio, J.P. (1999). Sex differences in how heterosexuals think about lesbians and gay men: evidence from survey context effects. //Journal of Sex Reaserch//, (1), Retrieved from []

Herek, G.M., Chopp, R., & Strohl, Darryl. (2007). Sexual stigma: putting sexual minority health issues in context. //Meyer & M. Northridge (Eds.)//, //1//, 1-28.

Herek, Gregory M.; Gillis, J. Roy; Cogan, Jeanine C. (2009) Internalized stigma among sexual minority adults: Insights from a social psychological perspective. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 32-43.

Kajlee, L.M., Green, M., Reil, R., Lerdboon, P., & Le Huu Tho, Initials. (2008). Sexual stigma, sexual behaviors, and abstinence among vietnamese adolescents: implications for risk and protective behaviors for hiv, stis, and unwanted pregnancy. //NIH Public Access Author Manuscript//, 1.

National Conference of State Legislatures. (2011, February). //Same sex marriage, civil unions and domestic partnerships//. Retrieved from []

Nelson, T.D. (2009). //Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination//. CRC Press.

Religion Facts. (2011). //Homosexuality and religion//. Retrieved from []

Servicemembers Legal Defense Network. (2011). //About "don't ask, don't tell"//. Retrieved from []

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