Sexism

= ﻿Yesenia Roman = **SEXISM** = = = = = = =﻿__**Definition:**__ Sexism, according to the Merriam Webster Dictionary (2011), is the discrimination or prejudice based on sex. It is also the attitudes, behaviors, and conditions that cultivate stereotypes of social roles based on sex. =

__** History & General Background: **__ According to ("The Reader’s Companion to U.S. Women’s History", 1998) “The term sexism was coined in the 1960s by feminists working in the civil rights movement to dramatize the parallel between the negative stereotyping of women and Blacks”. Today sexism is most commonly associated with the oppression of women as a result of their sex and the sex privilege given to men because of their sex. Sexism is identified in various components of one’s culture: in education, in the workplace, in advertising, in the media, etc. However the most confusing aspect of sexism is detecting where it is being uesd because it is a subtle connotation, Karmen (1991). That is, although there are laws that help to prevent sexism in the workplace for hiring new employees, these laws still can’t change the attitudes of the people. __** Types of Sexism: Hostile, Benevolent, and Ambivalent **__ According to understanding prejudice.com, there are several types of sexism views. Hostile sexism is an antagonistic attitude toward women who are regarded as trying to empower men though feministic ideals or sexual seduction. This attitude can arise from the result of men in dominant positions creating hostile attitudes towards inferior groups, in this case women. Benevolent sexism is the gallant attitude towards women; this may appear flattering but is actually considered sexist because it portrays women as weak human beings that need a man’s care and protection (“frequently asked questions:,” 2002). Hostile sexism is associated with the negative attitudes of sexism: domination of women by men and demeaning ideology. On the other hand, benevolent sexism portrays women in traditional roles that need protection and caring, it idealizes women as dependent and it gives them the upper hand in the relationship. It may appear to be romantic or honorable, but it still promotes gender inequality. Although they have different attitudes towards women, they both stimulate patriarchy.

According to (“frequently asked questions:,” 2002) Hostile Sexism items include: Here, women's sexuality and characteristics are devalued compared to the man's because they are portrayed as inferior (Lee, Pratto, Li, 2007).
 * Most women fail to appreciate all that men do for them
 * Women seek to gain power by getting control over men
 * Most women interpret innocent remarks or acts as being sexist
 * Women should forego a career because they lack ability

Benevolent Sexism items include: In this attitude the desire for intimate relations is expressed by portraying women as attractive and valuable and it also maintains traditional gender roles.
 * Women should be cherished and protected by men
 * Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess.
 * A good woman ought to be set on a pedestal by her man
 * Women should forego a career because they excel at childcare

Finally, a third sexism view called ambivalent sexism, "an ideology composed of both a 'hostile' and 'benevolent' prejudice towards women" (“frequently asked questions:,” 2002) was established by Professor Susan T. Fiske from Princeton University and Professor Peter Glick of Lawrence University. According to these two professors, ambivalent sexism is a blend of two basic facts about the connections between men and women: patriarchy (male dominance) and interdependence between the sexes. To understand ambivalent sexism, one must understand its two components. Patriarchy is common across different cultures as men are in command of high status and power roles in business, the government, and religious institutions among others. In spite of this male dominance in society, they are also dependent on women as mothers, wives, and romantic partners (“frequently asked questions:,” 2002). Therefore although ambivalent sexism recognizes the male dominance, it also recognizes the dependence of men on women and it therefore also gives power to women.

__** Examples of Sexism: **__ According to (Manser, 2000), “the most frequent examples of sexism include the use of the noun man in place of person; lady or girl in place of woman; he, him, and his as pronouns of common gender, and the titles Mrs. And Miss”. For example, when we refer to a woman by her last name, using Mrs. or Missidentifies her relationship status. However, a single or married man uses Mr. and his relationship status is not revealed or addressed. Sexism is also present in the expected roles for each gender. The beliefs that ‘a woman’s place is in the home’ or ‘men are naturally aggressive and stronger’ foster the notion that men are superior to women. In the picture to the right, a man is seen spanking a woman and telling her she should know her place. It shows a man in control and how he exercises his power over her by spanking her. Kamen (1991) says that a common experience of sexism with women is not being taken seriously in every sense possible. Academically, women feel inferior to men if they don't perform as well, and in sports, teams are separated by sexes and women teams and leagues don't have nearly as much funding as the men's.

However, research by Jost and Kay (2005) says that "from a system justification perspective, the belief that every group in society possess some advantages and some disadvantages should increase the sense that the system as a whole is fair, balanced, and legitimate". That is, sexism does not always only apply to male dominance and women subordination, there are also disadvantages for men. For example, if we use the assumption 'men are naturally aggressive and stronger', then this stereotype by definition should apply to every man. From here we infer that every man should be aggressive and pursue women and care for them and be the man of the house. However it is unfair to apply this aggressive characteristic to all men because some can be shy or timid, and not all can be sexual initiators or aggressors. Therefore sexism attitudes also misrepresent men as well. In addition, there are also ambivalent attit udes towards men. "Women resent men for their greater social power and aggressiveness while also admiring and needing them for the same qualities" (Chapleau, Oswald, & Russell, 2008). That is, women resent that men are allowed to be aggressive and take the first initiative, even in sexual encounters. Although it is not unusual, woman can take initiative but she may be judged or seen as a promiscuous woman.

__** Conclusion **__ Sexism exists today in various components and forms, some blatant and others as subliminal. Although it is frowned upon in our culture, male dominance is evident and even accepted in other cultures. The most common form of sexism is the subordination of woman and the high status of males. Although there exists disadvantages for men as well, they are fewer and less common than those of women. To conclude on sexism and the power of one gender over another, a quote from Indira Gandhi-  " My theory is that men are no more liberated than women".


 * __Reference List:__**

Chapleau, K. M., Oswald, D. L., & Russell B. L. (2008). Male Rape Myths: The Role of Gender, Violence, and Sexism. //Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23//(5), 600-615. Doi: 10.1177/0886260507313529

Frequently asked questions: ambivalent sexism. (2002). Retrieved from http://www.understandingprejudice.org/asi/faq.htm.

Hanser, M. H. (2000). //Good word guide//. Bloomsbury Pub Ltd.

Jost, J. T., & Kay, A. C. (2005). Exposure to Benevolent Sexism and Complementary Gender Stereotypes: Consequences for Specific and Diffuse Forms of System Justification. // Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88 // (3), 498-509. Doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.498

Kamen, P. (1991). Feminist fatale: voices from the "twenysomething" generation explore the future of the "women's movement". Dutton Adult.

Lee, I., Li, M., & Pratto, F. (2007). Social Relationships and Sexism in the United States and Taiwan. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38(5), 595-612. Doi: 10.1177/0022022107305241

The reader’s companion to U.S. women’s history to U.S. Women's history.(1998). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Edited by: (Mankiller ,Mink, Navarro, Smith, Steinem).